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Integration by Parts

Integration by Parts
Examples
Integration by Parts with a definite integral
Going in Circles
Tricks of the Trade

Integrals of Trig Functions

Antiderivatives of Basic Trigonometric Functions
Product of Sines and Cosines (mixed even and odd powers or only odd powers)
Product of Sines and Cosines (only even powers)
Product of Secants and Tangents
Other Cases

Trig Substitutions

How Trig Substitution Works
Summary of trig substitution options
Examples
Completing the Square

Partial Fractions

Introduction to Partial Fractions
Linear Factors
Irreducible Quadratic Factors
Improper Rational Functions and Long Division
Summary

Strategies of Integration

Substitution
Integration by Parts
Trig Integrals
Trig Substitutions
Partial Fractions

Improper Integrals

Type 1 - Improper Integrals with Infinite Intervals of Integration
Type 2 - Improper Integrals with Discontinuous Integrands
Comparison Tests for Convergence

Modeling with Differential Equations

Introduction
Separable Equations
A Second Order Problem

Euler's Method and Direction Fields

Euler's Method (follow your nose)
Direction Fields
Euler's method revisited

Separable Equations

The Simplest Differential Equations
Separable differential equations
Mixing and Dilution

Models of Growth

Exponential Growth and Decay
The Zombie Apocalypse (Logistic Growth)

Linear Equations

Linear ODEs: Working an Example
The Solution in General
Saving for Retirement

Parametrized Curves

Three kinds of functions, three kinds of curves
The Cycloid
Visualizing Parametrized Curves
Tracing Circles and Ellipses
Lissajous Figures

Calculus with Parametrized Curves

Video: Slope and Area
Video: Arclength and Surface Area
Summary and Simplifications
Higher Derivatives

Polar Coordinates

Definitions of Polar Coordinates
Graphing polar functions
Video: Computing Slopes of Tangent Lines

Areas and Lengths of Polar Curves

Area Inside a Polar Curve
Area Between Polar Curves
Arc Length of Polar Curves

Conic sections

Slicing a Cone
Ellipses
Hyperbolas
Parabolas and Directrices
Shifting the Center by Completing the Square

Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates

Foci and Directrices
Visualizing Eccentricity
Astronomy and Equations in Polar Coordinates

Infinite Sequences

Approximate Versus Exact Answers
Examples of Infinite Sequences
Limit Laws for Sequences
Theorems for and Examples of Computing Limits of Sequences
Monotonic Covergence

Infinite Series

Introduction
Geometric Series
Limit Laws for Series
Test for Divergence and Other Theorems
Telescoping Sums

Integral Test

Preview of Coming Attractions
The Integral Test
Estimates for the Value of the Series

Comparison Tests

The Basic Comparison Test
The Limit Comparison Test

Convergence of Series with Negative Terms

Introduction, Alternating Series,and the AS Test
Absolute Convergence
Rearrangements

The Ratio and Root Tests

The Ratio Test
The Root Test
Examples

Strategies for testing Series

Strategy to Test Series and a Review of Tests
Examples, Part 1
Examples, Part 2

Power Series

Radius and Interval of Convergence
Finding the Interval of Convergence
Power Series Centered at $x=a$

Representing Functions as Power Series

Functions as Power Series
Derivatives and Integrals of Power Series
Applications and Examples

Taylor and Maclaurin Series

The Formula for Taylor Series
Taylor Series for Common Functions
Adding, Multiplying, and Dividing Power Series
Miscellaneous Useful Facts

Applications of Taylor Polynomials

Taylor Polynomials
When Functions Are Equal to Their Taylor Series
When a Function Does Not Equal Its Taylor Series
Other Uses of Taylor Polynomials

Functions of 2 and 3 variables

Functions of several variables
Limits and continuity

Partial Derivatives

One variable at a time (yet again)
Definitions and Examples
An Example from DNA
Geometry of partial derivatives
Higher Derivatives
Differentials and Taylor Expansions

Differentiability and the Chain Rule

Differentiability
The First Case of the Chain Rule
Chain Rule, General Case
Video: Worked problems

Multiple Integrals

General Setup and Review of 1D Integrals
What is a Double Integral?
Volumes as Double Integrals

Iterated Integrals over Rectangles

How To Compute Iterated Integrals
Examples of Iterated Integrals
Fubini's Theorem
Summary and an Important Example

Double Integrals over General Regions

Type I and Type II regions
Examples 1-4
Examples 5-7
Swapping the Order of Integration
Area and Volume Revisited

Double integrals in polar coordinates

dA = r dr (d theta)
Examples

Multiple integrals in physics

Double integrals in physics
Triple integrals in physics

Integrals in Probability and Statistics

Single integrals in probability
Double integrals in probability

Change of Variables

Review: Change of variables in 1 dimension
Mappings in 2 dimensions
Jacobians
Examples
Bonus: Cylindrical and spherical coordinates


Calculus is built on six big ideas that I call the six pillars of calculus.

  1. Close is good enough (limits)
  2. Track the changes (derivatives)
  3. What goes up has to stop before it comes down (max/min)
  4. The whole is the sum of the parts (integration)
  5. The whole change is the sum of the partial changes (fundamental theorem)
  6. One variable at a time.


Most of multi-variable calculus is built on the last pillar, which we have already seen in the context of doing calculus with vector-valued functions. Partial derivatives combine the second and sixth pillars.

DNA forms a double helix, but the curvature of this helix depends on the temperature and on the salinity (concentration of salt). If we wanted to understand the curvature, we would do experiments by varying the conditions and measuring the curvature each time. (This can be done with gel electrophoresis. The tighter the DNA is coiled, the faster it moves through the gel.) If we did our experiments well, we wouldn't try changing both the temperature and the salinity. We would first hold the salinity fixed and change the temperature. Once we understood how temperature affects curvature, we would run a second set of experiments, holding the temperature fixed and varying the salinity. Combining the results, we would understand how both temperature and salinity affect curvature.

Mathematically, the curvature is a function $f(x,y)$, where $x$ is the temperature and $y$ is the salinity. Varying the temperature means comparing $f(x,y)$ to $f(x+h,y)$, and we can ask for the rate of change. Varying the salinity means comparing $f(x,y)$ to $f(x,y+h)$. By taking limits, we can compute two kinds of derivatives:

Definitions of partial derivatives:
The partial derivative of $f$ with respect to $x$ is $$\displaystyle{ \lim_{h \rightarrow 0} \frac{f(x+h,y)-f(x,y)}{h}}.$$
The partial derivative of $f$ with respect to $y$ is $$\displaystyle{ \lim_{h \rightarrow 0} \frac{f(x,y+h)-f(x,y)}{h}}$$


There are many notations for partial derivatives. If $z = f(x,y)$, then $$\displaystyle f_x(x,y) = f_x = \frac{\partial f}{\partial x}= \frac{\partial}{\partial x}f(x,y) = \frac{\partial z}{\partial x}= f_1 = D_1 f= D_x f$$ and $$\displaystyle f_y(x,y) = f_y = \frac{\partial f}{\partial y}= \frac{\partial}{\partial y}f(x,y) = \frac{\partial z}{\partial y}= f_2 = D_2 f= D_y f$$

The rough and precise definitions of limits of functions of two (or more) variables work the same way:

Rules for finding partial derivatives:
  1. To find $f_x$, hold $y$ constant and differentiate with respect to $x$.
  2. To find $f_y$, hold $x$ constant and differentiate with respect to $y$.


When computing $f_x$, we treat $y$ as a constant because it is a constant. After all, we are doing today's experiments at fixed salinity. This means that we can apply all of our familiar differentiation rules, pretending that the only variable is $x$.

Example: Compute $f_x$ and $f_y$ when $f(x,y) = \sin(x+y^2)$. Solution: Since the derivative of $\sin(x + \hbox{ constant })$ with respect to $x$ is $\cos(x + \hbox{ constant })$, $$f_x = \cos(x+y^2).$$ Since the derivative of $\sin(\hbox{constant} + y^2)$ with respect to $y$ is $2y \cos(\hbox{constant }+y^2)$, $$f_y = 2y \cos(x+y^2).$$


In the following video, we review the Six Pillars and explain the ideas behind partial derivatives.